The Dutch, who had made a conscious study of the countries potential for trade and commerce, were at one stage prepared to lose India, rather than endanger the prospects of conquering Ceylon. The Portuguese were finally expelled from the country in 1665. The Dutch pursued a far more progressive policy to their predecessors in the administration of the country, but adopted a very selfish and an oppressive approach to commerce and trade. Various attempts to unify the entire country failed. They too were confined to the coastal areas. Unlike the Portuguese they enjoyed a reputation of having done more towards the economical development of the country.

They established a very lucrative business with Holland, and later with Persia, India and the Far East. They encouraged the cultivation of Cinnamon, which turned out to be their staple export. Provocative laws were passed to safeguard the industry. The peelings of cinnamon, the selling or exporting of a single stick, save by the appointed officers, or the wilful injuries to a cinnamon plant, were made crimes punishable by death. The Dutch encouraged agriculture, but it was essentially for a selfish purpose.

They used the system of forced labour to cultivate vast tracks of coconut along the seacoast that presents an unbroken grove of palms that is seen even today. They did much to improve the pearl-oyster fisheries in the Gulf of Mannar, with great success. They were the first to improve internal communication through a network of canals. This helped them to establish trade connections with the interior. In 1796, the Dutch were forced to abandon their holdings in the Island, after they were threatened by a British invasion from India. The Maritime Provinces became a British possession by right of conquest. An attempt to govern the country from Madras proved a failure, and in 1802 Ceylon was made a Crown Colony.

Picture 5 Early Prints P185 “The rolling plains of Uva” 6x4.5

Nobody at that stage would have doubted the importance of Ceylon to Britain and the East India Company. Unfortunately they did not really know what it had succeeded to, what the Dutch possessions were, or the authority possessed by the sovereign of Kandy. They decided to carry on the administration of the country as the Dutch had done, but they seemed totally ignorant of the Dutch system of farming taxes, which was their main source of revenue. Robert Andrews, the Superintendent of Revenue, commenced the first move in this direction by levying a tax on all owners of coconut trees. This was considered most unfair, and the entire populace reacted with vehement opposition to the way they were treated by their new masters.

Picture 10, 19th Century P 159 “New governor meets local chieftains ” 6x4.5

In October 1798 the first civilian Governor the Honourable Frederick North arrived in Ceylon. He was an aristocrat with the best possible social and political connections. On his departure from Ceylon in 1805, he however felt that he had done very little to clear the ground for restoration of British rule in the island.

The three other Governors that followed him were army officers who had been in active service. They proved capable of defending the country militarily. Lieut, General the Right Hon. Sir Thomas Maitland G.C.B who followed North on 19th March 1805, measured all schemes and enterprises on their attributes to benefit the country at large.

His fame to success was his ability to make every colony pay for itself, and this formula he claimed should be applied in the appointment of Governors. His administration of the Maritime Provinces was rated extraordinarily successful.

He made Ceylon pay its way, and this he did by tightening the financial regulations in the civil service. He prohibited public servants from engaging in trade. He in a way was responsible for the establishment of an efficient civil service in the country. Above all, he was the first to recognise the importance of agriculture to the colony, and accordingly lifted the ban on the sale of land to Europeans outside Colombo.

He encouraged the cultivation of rice in the country, to supplement imports, thereby saving on exchange. Large-scale cultivation of commercial crops however had to await the conquest of the Kandyan provinces, where the most suitable land for the cultivation of coffee was found.

Brownrigg, who succeeded Maitland in 1811, was a professional soldier too, with a long record of active service in the forces. With the revenue on a sound footing, and the government well organised, he as a military person directed all his energies towards the subjugation of the Kandyan kingdom.

Picture 11 Early Prints “Sir Robert Brownrigg” 5x6

Brownrigg made capital of the intrigue that existed in the Kandyan Court during this period, and swiftly moved against the Kandyan defenders that he commanded in person. The Kandyan kingdom was captured on 18th February 1815, and the home rule of the Kandyan provinces vested in the sovereign of the British Empire. When Brownrigg captured Kandy, did he little realise that after four centuries, a small island composed of various racial groups in numerous stages of economic development were once again united under “one umbrella."

Major-General Sir Edward Barnes, K. C. B. during his two terms of governor-ship between 1820 and 1831 was able to exercise effective control over the entire country. His approach to the all-important task of maintaining the security of the country was different to the views expressed by his predecessors. He put an end to the earlier policy of building fortified posts. He concentrated on developing a wide network of roads.

The Dutch attempted strongly to cultivate this plant originally seen growing wild in the country. In 1770, De Koke made a strong bid to meet the entire European demand for cinnamon. This was achieved before long, and about 400,000 pounds were annually shipped to these countries. They completely ruled the trade, and there had been instances where excess cinnamon had been destroyed, lest its abundance should reduce the price.

Picture 12, 19th Century P62 “Cinnamon Culture” 7x5.5

Excess plants even at home were burnt, and only the required quantities were raised. It is on record that in 1760 an enormous quantity of cinnamon valued at eight million lives was destroyed near the admiralty at Amsterdam. The air had been perfumed with the incense, but no one was permitted to retrieve any of the wasting elements.

The best quality cinnamon was found on the south west coast of Ceylon, on a strip of land some twelve to fifteen miles broad, extending from Negombo to Matara. In comparison to coffee, these plots were small, and according to Sir Emerson Tennent, the extent of the five most prestigious gardens found in this area could not have exceeded twenty miles in circumference.

The British that succeeded the Dutch in 1796 inherited this legacy, and maintained it as a state monopoly, under the English East India Company. This move was not without condemnation both from the colonial officers and the local traders. Colebrooke condemned the cinnamon monopoly and recommended its abolition. He went further to urge the government to sell the cinnamon lands held by them to the private sector, and abolish the monopoly, in the belief that the cultivation of cinnamon would increase.

The sale of cinnamon lands as recommended by Colebrooke proceeded expeditiously, but the prices realised were well below expectations. During the period 1834 and 1839, over 2,000 acres of abandoned cinnamon lands were sold which were soon converted to coconut and coffee. The sale of productive cinnamon lands in Moratuwa Kadirana and Ekala commenced in 1840 and mostly the low country Sinhalese purchased them.

Picture 13 The Book of Ceylon No. 196 “Lopping the cinnamon trees” 4.5x3.5

With the entry of private dealing into the cinnamon trade, a strong agitation for the removal of the export duty commenced backed by the Ceylon government, the Colonial office and the Board of Trade, but the Treasury did not give way. The relentless decline in prices that followed, forced the Treasury to finally abolish the duty in 1853, but failed to liberate the industry that had gone beyond hope of recovery.

During the 1820’s indigo cultivation was unsuccessfully attempted near Veyangoda in the wet zone lowlands. A more concerted effort was made to cultivate sugar, in keeping with the economic pattern of the West Indies. The emphasis was going to be placed on sugar and coffee as major industries, and cotton and tobacco as subsidiaries. High hopes were entertained for sugar, but it was proved later that the soil was not suitable for cultivation of sugar. The plantations that were opened up in Negombo, Kalutara, and in the central hills were the first to fold up. The plantations in the Baddegama areas struggled for a little longer, but it too was predestined for failure.

Many attempts were made by the British capitalists to strike profitable roots so as to pay for “European Enterprise.” An attempt was made to promote cotton culture in the more drought-ridden sections of the country. They were tried out in the Eastern Province and in the Jaffna Peninsula, but the results did not prove worthy of confidence, and had to be abandoned.

There after, with most of the attempts at cultivating other crops having failed, the British capital was largely attracted to coffee plantation culture and business concerns, and too much lesser extent to coconut cultivation. The indigenous capitalist class on the other hand preferred to try a stake at cultivating coffee and coconut as major investments.

It was at this stage that most local capitalists diverted their attention to the cultivation of coconut and coffee. The main trust for the Ceylonese capitalist class and the small holder was for the expansion of coconut cultivation in the coastal areas.

Ceylon is known to have had over twenty-five different types of palms of which the most important are the coconut, palmyra, araca, kitul or jaggery palm and the talipot palm.

These varieties have over the years provided sufficient food for the millions and have remained a general-purpose commodity for the people of Ceylon and other tropical lands. Percival, an authority on the country’s history, relates that a small ship from the Maldive Islands arrived at Galle. This was entirely built, rigged, provisioned, and laden with the product of the coconut palm.

Coconut plantations were seen along the coastal belt when the Dutch arrived in the country, but they in reality encouraged its further expansion only along the maritime districts. To the wealthy native mercantile, trading and the industrious class, coconut cultivation was their favourite mode of investment.

Picture 14 The Book of Ceylon No. 309 “Coconut seedlings” 4.5x3

Within the Dutch period, and to a lesser extent during the British term the entire coastal areas were planted with this palm. The coconut palm, together with a piece of cloth and a little rice, supplied most of the wants of the indigenous people. Food, drink, domestic utensils, building material and thatching, wine, sugar and oil are the many gifts this magnanimous tree offers man. No other staple can offer in such proportions the various other products as the coconut tree.

The calamity that struck the coffee industry in the late 1880’s did not in any way affect coconut cultivation instead it gave a further boost for the indigenous estate owners to expand their coconut holdings. Land sales to locals increased two fold and three fold in the north western province during this period in complete contrast to trends elsewhere. It also set in motion a new trend in internal demographic migration, without which this expansion in coconut cultivation could not have taken place. Coconut cultivation in a way demanded less capital than for coffee or tea

Picture 15 The Book of Ceylon No. 314 “A coconut Grove” 2x3

It was a common scene to observe coconut trees interpolated with other trees, From the early 1840’s coconut plantations were opened in the Jaffna Peninsula, and along the eastern coast, mostly by the British capitalists, but the principal agents in this expansion were the Ceylonese from the low country who had acquired wealth mostly through the profits of the coconut trade itself, the arrack trade, the service industries, the timber trade, artisan occupations and from the granite industry. During the 1880’s about 70 percent of the coconut plantation land in non-European hands were owned by Sinhalese, and about 28 percent by Ceylon Tamils.

Picture 16 The Book of Ceylon No. 311 “The native oil mill, “The Chekku” 4.5x3

Production of coconut supported a number of rural small industries, besides providing material for a number of domestic needs. Preparation of copra, and the extraction of oil was the most important in terms of employment and capital generated.

Arrack, an intoxicating sprit had been in great demand in South India, but what is exported cannot be compared with the large local consumption, which expanded with the increasing wealth of the people.

This habit had been securely established in the Island long before the British arrived. This proved a sure source of revenue to the government, and the British had been blamed for having regulated and protected the liquor traffic. The findings are that the people of Ceylon have spent seven million rupees on intoxicants, and only a tenth of this amount devoted to education.

Another lucrative business that developed as a result of the coconut palm was trade in coil fibre and oil. The coir fibre turned out from the husk found a ready market in South India. The oil obtained from the kernel of the nut, was freely used as a lubricant, for soap making, and dressing cloths in the European countries. The coconut oil was further used for candle making, and lighting purposes.

During the mid 1850’s there had been over thirty million coconut palms cultivated in the island, covering about 30,000 acres yielding around hundred million nuts per year. The annual export value of coconut products was reckoned at a total figure of about pound sterling 600,000 while the value of the products locally consumed could have been well over half a million sterling per year.

An offshoot of the coconut palm—the palmyra tree, usually referred to as the juggery tree, is one of the richest plants in the East, and can boast of a life span of over 300 years. This palm is especially adapted to the drier regions of the island, and thrives well in the North and the eastern regions. The edible product of the tree is well sought after, and provides food to the many inhabitants in these regions. Its timber is priced for house building purposes.

With agriculture well entrenched in the country, the Colonial powers set about providing the necessary infrastructure to ensure its further growth.

Setting up of Colombo on the western sea coast of the island, as the principal town of the country had been the object of all colonial powers who invaded the island at various times. It was only under British rule however, and later still, that Colombo came to be regarded as one of the greatest steamer calling and coaling ports on the sea route between Europe and Australia. Today, it is regarded as convenient and commodious artificial harbours in the world. Colombo, to a visitor presents a picture book lay out of one of the most beautiful and interesting of tropical cities, with its people, their social life, industries and trade.

To the early Sinhalese Colombo presented a rocky headland, forming a very shallow harbour. According to the old Sinhalese authority Kolamba meant a port of call for vessels, and without any fanciful derivations, its original name has even to date been maintained.

Picture 34 The Book of Ceylon No.29 “Calm seas on the western coast” 6.5x4

A Mohammedan traveller Iban Batuta who visited the island in 1346 had made the first authentic notice of the town. A log entry in his diary refers to a voyage undertaken by him to the city of Kolambu, considered one of the finest and largest cities of the island of Serendib. According to a Chinese writer the port was referred to as Kao-lang-wu or Ko-ling-lo.

When the Portuguese arrived in the island in 1505 as the first colonial power, Colombo was no more than a few cadjan huts, but the shallow harbour served as a safe shelter for their small boats of the day.

Despite their attempts to establish a profitable trading post in Colombo, the expenditure required for the protection of the country in the almost continuous wars with the Sinhalese and the allies, who bitterly resented the appearance of European traders to the Eastern world, often exceeded the revenue obtained. Royal monopolies were formed of cinnamon, pepper and musk, to raise the necessary revenue. A much wider range of articles however entered their regular trade.

In the meanwhile, the Dutch in their search for trading opportunities in the orient, entered the territorial waters of the island on 30th May and anchored off Batticaloa. At the very outset, they were able to enter into a peace agreement with the King of Kandy, which left the Portuguese in an insecure position in the country. The conflict between the two European powers, ultimately led to the final ejection of the Portuguese from the country. The war lasted for almost nineteen years.

Picture 35 19th Century P 41 “peace restored with the Kandyan Chiefs” 5.5x4.5

Ceylon faced the third subjection to a foreign power on the 16th of February 1796 when Britain took over the possession in the name of William of Orange Holland, being at the time in the hands of the French. At the time of the British military victory, Colombo was described as follows:-

With the unification of Ceylon in 1815, Sir Edward Barnes as Governor in 1824 gave Ceylon a fresh appearance. The country was well connected with a network of military roads, bridges were constructed across the major rivers, and the first mail coach in Asia was started between Colombo and Kandy,
These improvements to the country were all mapped out from his palatial residence at Mount Lavinia built at a cost of pound sterling 30,000.

Picture 36 19th Century P 117 “Colonial Defences” 6.5x8.5

Up to about the 1840’s, Ceylon was a military dependency with about six infantry regiments with artillery. All maintained by the Imperial Government. Colombo being the capitol enjoyed the advantage of having the headquarters of a Lieut. General. For security reasons, the entire workforce was stationed within its boundaries.

In 1857 Colombo seemed a truly busy city, with a dozen sailing ships with 300 to 1000 tons at anchor, and all operations carried out with the utmost care and attention. Foreign visitors to the city were few. There was only one hotel worth mentioning, but the mercantile hospitality made up for all the deficiencies, and all visitors to the island were welcomed as dear friends from the homeland.

Shaping of modern Colombo commenced with the demolition of the defence fortifications by Governor Sir Robinson in 1869. With this operation completed, Colombo became more accessible to all the commercial establishments that were housed together within the Fort. The winding up of the local rifle regiment that followed, set the stage for the formation of the police force for the first time in the country.

Picture 37 19th Century P200 “Landing of the Prince of Wales in Colombo” 6.5x4.5

There was a burst of growth in the building industry, to accommodate the needs of the fast growing economy. The influx of foreign banks into Colombo required further accommodation and these were in most part provided by the wealthy Sinhalese,

The skyline of the city of Colombo was beginning to change fast, and the modern buildings offered a complete contrast to the old warehouses that lined the streets in the old city days. The manager of the Oriental Bank, Mr George Smyttan Duff was the first European to venture out into the building trade, The Hong Kong and Shanghai and Chartered Bank had their beginnings in a building block constructed by him. The Mercantile Bank, the Bank of Madras, and the National Bank of India were also handsomely located in the Fort.

A construction company specially formed for this purpose with government’s blessings undertook construction of the Grand Oriental Hotel in the Fort being the first hotel in the true sense of the word. The Wharf and Warehouse Company, the Bristol Hotel, the General Post Office, and a shopping arcade, the Peninsular and Oriental Company, all found suitable locations.

Just outside the Fort, and on all land from Turret road eastwards was covered with cinnamon. In a bid to beautify the city, the government laid out a park and flower gardens, and sold the surrounding land for the construction of residential houses. This area was well laid out with tree lined gravel paths, often named after former British Governors. One of the most impressive buildings to be constructed out of the fort area was the Colombo Museum, built by Governor Gregory.

Picture 38 The Book of Ceylon No. 31 “The Grand Oriental Hotel” 4.5x3

A Lunatic Asylum was built at the far end of the residential area. The need for the establishment of such an institution even prior to the construction of the Civil Hospital in Colombo so early in the day no doubt seems so strange, but very little has been spoken on this matter.

The construction of hospitals in all its divisions and the establishment of the Medical School had been mostly due to the magnanimity of the illustrious Sinhalese philanthropic the De Soysa family, who came into prominence after his magnificent entertainment to HRH The Duke of Edinburgh in 1870 at his Bambalapitiya residence, since called Alfred House.

There were several Cathedrals and Churches, mosques and temples, schools and colleges belonging to the different religious bodies erected at different parts of the city. The British administration ensured that provision was made to provide recreational facilities for the fast growing urban population.

The Victoria Park, the Campbell Gardens, The modern Havelock Racecourse, the several Golf courses, Cricket and hockey grounds, the Galle Face promenade to mention a few, still continue to captivate the local metropolitan populace, but hardly a single European is seen today at any of these places when important events are organised. These facilities, after all, were provided a hundred years for the exclusive use of the foreigners, where the locals were not tolerated.

Even before the Christian era, Ceylon formed a vital link in the maritime commerce of the ancient world. Colombo occupied a strategic position applicable to the great trade routes that linked countries in the Middle East with lands in the Far East across the Indian Ocean.

Colombo was an open roadstead from ancient times, but it was with the arrival of the Portuguese in the island in 1505 that Colombo became known to the seafaring nations of the world. Colombo remained a fortress-cum-naval harbour during the Portuguese period, but underwent several structural changes under the Dutch and the British.

Picture 40 The Book of Ceylon No. 9 “Massive Breakers” 4.5x3.5

With the development of the country based on an import export economy, the main obstacle to the fast business deals of shipping concerns was the prevalence of heavy surf and a stiff breeze during the monsoon months. The problem however, was promptly attended to by the construction of a breakwater. The favourable reports regarding the need to develop the Colombo harbour with a breakwater to shelter the ships in anchor, led Governor Hercules Robinson to give the “green light” for the commencement of additional construction works.

Designing of the breakwater and the allied harbour works was undertaken by John Coode, and executed under his direction by John Kyle. The actual construction work was entrusted to Sir William Gregory. The foundation stone was laid by HRH the Prince of Wales during a visit to the East in 1875.This huge wall, 4,212 feet long, took ten years and an outlay of £705,000 to complete. It changed an open roadstead into a harbour, completely sheltered on the most exposed southwest side. There were still disadvantages in certain months, to storms from the North West and North East winds.

Picture 41 19th Century P 231 “Prince laying the foundation stone” 6.5x4.5

With the success achieved in the first instance, the government decided to construct two additional arms— 1,000 feet North East breakwater from the Mutwal shore and a 2,200 feet North West breakwater and another 700 foot between the centre and the North East arms. These two additional arms, with a light house and connected works of land reclamation, coaling depots and other conveniences, estimated at a cost of pounds sterling 527,000 was undertaken. Work commenced in April 1895 and the entire project completed in 1902. This made Colombo one of the most commodious and convenient artificial harbours in the world.
During this period, South India was lacking facilities for safe shipping on both sides and Colombo was destined to become the chief port for this region. By the turn of the century, Colombo had become the greatest central mail and commercial steamer port of the East. All the large steamers of the P & O company, the British India, Star, Ducal, and most of the Messageries, Nord-Deutscher, Lloyds, Austro-Hungarian Lloyds, Rubattino, The Clan, Glen City, Ocean Anchor, Holts and other liners of Europe, India, China, the Straits, and Australia began to call in Colombo on a regular basis. In consequence of this, valuable to the merchant and the planter, was the regular and the cheap freight offered to world markets.

The impact of this period on the entire country could only be gauged by taking into account the important economical functions that centred round the Central Province. This was the time when Badulla was considered a part of it and Kandy, Matale, and Nuwara Eliya, were the other districts annexed to the Central Province.

According to a census taken on 17th February 1881, the Central Province, with the inclusion of Badulla District held 23% of the land area of the country; and the Badulla district alone had carved out more than 50% of the land allotted to this province. There was also a high concentration of people there only next to the Western Province.

It is also pertinent to note at this stage that the Central Province had the largest amount of Europeans resident in the country. About 54 % of the total European population were found in these areas. About 50 % of the male population and 20 % of the female population had been directly engaged in agriculture. It is also established that about 80 % of the estates in 1881 were situated in the Central Province. Of the total registered plantations in the country, Kandy District alone had 671 plantations, Nuwara Eliya District 325, Badulla 271,and Matale 141. It has also been established that about 90 % of the emigrant South Indian labour was employed on plantations in the Central Province.

It now seems clear that during the transitional period, when a search was on to identify a new crop to replace coffee, the most effected would have been the ordinary people in the Central Province, where the plantation enterprise originated. These villages who pioneered the plantation enterprise would have seen a set of uncomprehending people, backward in knowledge due to lack of educational facilities. They had access to only 61 schools, whereas the Western Province with populations of 897,329 had access to 350 schools.

They were however able to accommodate a population of 639,361 people within its boundaries, which was about 23 % of the total population of the country.

All their energies were expanded on agriculture and any form of industrial development was unknown in those areas during this period. When coffee failed, the Central Province had an extent of over 6,000 square miles within its boundary, with 80 % of the estates of the country within its confines. It had to monitor the welfare of about 90 % of the total population of the country, and 42 % of the emigrant labour. This would no-doubt have been a formidable task for the planters who stuck on and gambled their fortunes further for a better tomorrow. By a stroke of good luck, conditions began to change, and within a short period of time, “low spirits” and “sinking hearts” were soon convulsed with laughter when they saw a future in tea.

The first ever visit undertaken by a governor to the district of Uva was in 1866 when Sir Hercules Robinson was given a right royal welcome by the coffee planters of the district, at Kalupahani coffee store. It was an event of great rejoicing to mark the expansion of communication from Colombo to the interior of the newly laid coffee tracks.

They travelled several miles down the road from Kalupahani to meet and escort him to the venue. The most senior planter was Webster of Haldummulla, who was the first to use coffee spouting, Tom Wood of Spring Valley, Keillor Mitchell of Kelburne. All others in the hay-day of coffee planting were there on this historic occasion. The road from Ratnapura to Haputale was nearing completion, and this was another event they had to celebrate.

The planters made use of this opportunity to celebrate yet another event of consequence. They took this opportunity to bid farewell to the great road commissioner Major Thomas Skinner, G.M.C. He had completed the road from Pelmadulla, to Balangoda, at a cost of pounds sterling 9,163, against an estimate of pounds sterling 18,000. On this splendid performance he was permitted to continue the road through to Haputale, down to Bandarawela and eventually to be carried through to Passara, Lunugala, and then to Batticaloa. This road was of such importance to the Coffee planters, that it was thought but fitting that they should gather in strength to congratulate their friend and welcome the Governor.

This graphic description goes to prove that there were no roads in Ceylon prior to the arrival of the British, and until the vesting of the Kandyan Kingdom in George 111 in 1815.

The emergence of an integrated national economy may be attributed to the impact of road development under colonial rule. The construction of a network of roads was initially motivated by military exigencies rather than economic considerations, but latterly development of roads and the railway was given priority mainly by a desire to reach potential agricultural sources.

The first road of strategic importance opened in Ceylon was the Colombo Kandy road. Until this road was built the British outpost was in Avissawella on the Kelani-ganga. From there a jungle track led them through Ruanwella to Attapitiya, in single file through the Balana Pass to Gannoruwa. The new road took a different route. After crossing the Kelani-ganga in Colombo, the road extended straight to Ambepusse. It then took a very steep climb through the Kadugannawa Pass, crossing the old road below Balana, and then crossed the Mahaweli-ganga at Peradeniya instead of at Gonnoruwa.

Picture 20 Early Prints P284 “Cascades near Ramboda, where magnificent woods thrived” 4.5x5.5

Prior to the construction of the Railway in the 1860’s the only means of conveyance was the heavy bullock cart, which could operate only on made roads. During the coffee era, a bullock cart needed 30 to 40 days to make a return journey to Colombo. A letter posted in Galle took 9 to 12 months to reach London. No metalled roads were found in those days, and the only means of communication between Kandy and Colombo was through rough and narrow jungle paths. The many rivers that people encounter on the way had to be crossed by fords or ferries. This too was only possible during the dry season.

In 1815 the British army for the second time fought its way up the mountains and captured Kandy, in fulfilment of a prophecy; that, whoever should penetrate the rock and make a road from the plains, would receive the kingdom of Kandy as his reward. The Portuguese and the Dutch failed, but finally the British fulfilled it.

Transformation of the country from subsistence to an integrated national economy could be attributed to the impact of road development under the British. The expansion of the communication network was basically motivated by a desire to reach potential agricultural resources that were for most part, hidden in the inaccessible jungles of the hill country.

Sir Edward Barnes who governed the country during the period 1820 and 1830 was to a great extent responsible for giving an early start to the expansion of transport in the country. It was a change in the military strategy as initiated by him that provided the finances to fund a project of this nature.

He dispensed with the task of building fortresses at strategic points that were often in malaria-infected areas, for the maintenance of law and order in the country. Instead, he constructed a link road to Kandy along which troops could move fast.

It was Sir Edward Barnes, who made possible the expansion of the coffee industry, through his skill in road building, and the Colombo Kandy road stands today as a monument to his achievements. He arrived in the island in 1819. As Tennent puts it “had the penetration to perceive that the sums annually wasted on hill-forts and garrisons in the midst of wild forests, might, with judicious expenditure, be made to open the whole country by military roads, contributing at once to its security and its enrichment”.

Until then, the Kandyan Kingdom remained in isolation, protected by the hills and forests, as a result, they were able to resort to guerrilla warfare and keep intruders at bay. The Kandy road destroyed their isolation and what is more, it introduced a new Monarch, King George 111, who ended up being the “King Coffee”

The first sod for road construction was cut in 1820, and the trace completed in 1821. It was opened to traffic in 1825, but all the culverts and bridges were not completed until 1833. It took a further eight years for it to be metalled.

The construction of the Colombo Kandy road is also steeped in history. There was an ancient prophesy among the Kandyans that whoever shall pierce the rock and make a road from the plains, would receive as his reward, the Kingdom of Kandy. The Portuguese and the Dutch failed, and the British who pierced the rock and build the road to Kandy at last fulfilled the prophecy. The Kadugannawa Pass stands as a monument for the untiring efforts of the British.

This road cut through the rock at Kadugannawa Pass, regarded a triumph of military engineering, nullified all natural obstacles. From an economical viewpoint it was invaluable since it linked the coffee growing districts with the port of shipment.

The person responsible was Captain W. F. Dawson, officer commanding the Royal Engineers. He died in Colombo on the 28th March 1829. In his memory a monument of great beauty stands at the summit of the Kadugannawa Pass.

Another landmark on the road to Kandy that needs special reference is the bridge built at Peradeniya by Captain Fraser in July 1832 across the Mahaweli Ganga. What is unique is that the entire bridge had been constructed with satinwood hauled up from Puttalam by elephant-carts. The bridge was so skilfully designed that it was put together without a single bolt. The entire massive woodwork is dovetailed together to hold it in position. The great strength of the stone buttresses and their foundations on each side had been undoubtedly the key to its long life.

The second road was built once again from Colombo to Kandy, but through Kurunegala, and later extended to Trincomalee. The coast road,