Tea is a universal drink, and millions the world over enjoy it. Despite its universal acceptance, how many of them are conversant with its long and colourful history. Emperors, and peasants alike, Taoist hermits, Buddhist monks, wandering physicians, lovely ladies, craftsmen, potters, poets, singers, painters, architects, nomadic tribesman who bartered horses for bricks of tea, and statesmen who used tea to put off would-be invaders, have all played their part in promoting it’s usage.

A story close on 2,000 years old had even fashioned a part of Chinese cultural heritage. All tea in the world came from China, and it is only during the last two centuries that attempts were made to grow it outside the country. Within the neighbouring provinces however, the story of tea extends to over 2,000 years, but grown in gross violation to the delightful part of Chinese culture. Chinese art of tea not only embraces the skills in the growing and processing of tea leaves, but goes further to involve the fine art of brewing it to extract the maximum flavour and aroma. Above all, they should know the art of relaxing and savouring the brew in pleasant environs, so that a tea session could become a short retraction from the tensions and exertions of modern life.

Unlike in Japan, Chinese tea addicts never developed an intricate tea ceremony, as unnecessary stylisation they felt, was contrary to the feeling of sensitiveness and light-hearted informality they associated with tea drinking. Tea to them was always enjoyed where the atmosphere is peaceful, and the surroundings friendly.

The Chinese, as a race, are dedicated eaters. They are known to make every nutritive substance from earth, sky or sea, taste delicious. Their frequent banquets of old, comprising 108 courses are no doubt, have long been out of fashion. Of later years, their 32 to 24 and 16 course feasts that were common up to a few decades ago, are also becoming infrequent in modern times. Guests are often invited to the 8 course meal. The Chinese are also known to yield to the exchange of presents on festive days, of all kinds of special delicacies. What is most striking is that a casual observer would be tempted into believing that the Chinese would run into fat in the first instance, or be especially prone to digestive complications. In actual fact, it is not so. Perhaps, the reason is that they drink hot tea with each meal, and also in between.

The Chinese perfected the art of tea drinking and made it to a socio-religious function, and had it all wrapped up in meditative and theoretical matters. The sprit of tea to them should flow spontaneously, wandering in earthy existence, intolerant of any interference. The key to this attitude is mindfulness. Unlike in times gone by, this disposition has to be skilfully cultivated, as the world today is full of distractions. Once this attitude is attained, a thousand hitherto unnoticed beauties will reveal themselves. In this situation, one would listen to the music in the hiss and bubble of the kettle, perhaps enjoy the freshness in the odour of the steam rising from the tea cups, and a gentle stimulation, too refined to be noticeable to a troubled mind.

These amusements however could disappear in the presence of devout silence, being precise, ritualistic, and distraction. To enjoy the best, one should be contented, calm, and behave with perfect informality. This calls for flawless compatibility with the powers of nature, which involve harmony with heaven, earth and man. Heaven provides the sunshine, mist and rain, needed for growing tea, earth provides soil to nourish the tea plants, clay from which all kinds of ceramic tea-things are created, and pebbly springs overflowing with pure water with which the tea is brewed. To these, man adds the talents by which processed tea leaves, water and ceramics are combined to create the fabric of a captivating art.

The tea plant originated in China, and the Chinese were the first civilisation to consume tea as a drink. Due to its long history, tea to them is much more than a mere beverage. A meaningful culture has developed round the tea industry. Apart from this enlightenment, the politics and economics of tea have had an intellectual impact both nationally and internationally. Tea had been used as currency, a tax base, and as a source of revenue. It has been the cause of bloody wars. China made and lost fortunes in tea. Tea, throughout its long history, has retained a very special place in Chinese civilisation, although some of the original earthenware and porcelain tea pots have been replaced in their daily life with modern utensils. China has recorded a number of “firsts”, being the source of the first tea bush. It was the first country to cultivate the tea bush for its herbal and later, for its drinkable qualities. They went further to produce a great variety of commercial teas. They were also the first to develop the art of extraction and use of tea seed oil.

From 2737 to 960 BC tea was primarily used as a herbal medicine. Tea was made into a cake, dried, pulverised, and then boiled again before consuming. Hand manufacturing of brick tea followed thereafter, and this discovery gave the much desired impetus for the development of trade in tea. Tea became a prized commodity among the ruling classes. The consumption of tea caught on fast, and by 728 AD, tea markets, tea peddlers, and tea stalls had appeared in the more promising parts of the country, aiding the economy to thrive.

Popularity of tea was spreading fast, and the feudal rulers implemented a policy of controlling the boarders through tea. The trading of tea for horses gave birth to a new policy called “the tea-horse law.” Tea was going to play an important part in the administration of China, and the government moved in to make this commodity a state monopoly. It also became part of the tribute system which regulated relations between the Chinese civilisation and within the Great Wall and the wandering tribes outside.

Tea growing areas gradually expanded, and in 1162, tea production in 242 counties in the south-east of the country totalled over 7,950 tons, with a further 10,510 tons in the south-west China. There were many varieties of teas with different flavours, and prices fluctuated accordingly. Preparation of the beverage too changed, and the old steamed and roasted green teas gave way to more refined types, which included post-fermented tea, white, oolong, black, and scented teas.

Chinese Tea Tracks

The most remarkable thing about the history of tea, its origin, and its ultimate success, has been ascribed to an improbable strike of good fortune. It is no doubt that a certain amount of luck was required before the happy results were achieved, to mix dry leaves with water and drink the resulting liquid. Tea also enjoys the unique distinction of being discovered by a saintly person, and to the Chinese, it was a special gift from heaven.

It was with the Chinese that the making and the drinking of tea began. In about 44 years from now, in the year 2041, only those who are connected with the tea industry will know anything about the origins of tea, which is considered one of the world’s most important beverages in the world. Tea today; is taken for granted, and very few will stop to consider the strange history of the refreshment he enjoys every day.

The story of this beverage began in 2737 BC during the reign of Emperor Chen Nung. He set the good example to his subjects of always boiling his drinking water. It is said that one day as the Emperor was boiling some water in order to purify it, a few leaves from a near by tea plant dropped into the imperial billycan. A new beverage was discovered. He is reported to have said “Tea is better than wine, for it leaded not to intoxication, neither does cause a man to say foolish things and repent thereof in his sober moments. It is better than water, for it does not carry disease; neither does it act like poison as water does, when wells contain foul and rotten matter”.

The tea plants belong to the genus Camellia and it has been known to man for a very long time. It includes as many as 82 named species found mainly in the mainland of South East Asia. This genus includes many ornamental plants that are consumed after brewing. At the turn of the century tea was used as a medical herb due to its unpleasant character, as tea was then infused from green untended leaf.

This particular camellia has been cultivated by the Chinese people for more than 2000 years, not as one might imagine on large plantations, but on small plots, where the bushes are counted in dozens, rather than in hectares.

Tea as a beverage that originated in China, but its early history as a drink however is surrounded by cloudy legends and mythological variations of the imaginative Chinese. The exact date of the discovery when the leaves of this plant when boiled in water were not found harmful or toxic for human consumption however is difficult to fix. All the available information regarding the history of tea, its origin, and its ultimate success as the world’s number one drink next to water has been ascribed today to good fortune-weather that date is classified as legend or not.

According to the Chinese writer Cha Pu, the habit of partaking of a tasty brew of leaves and boiling water began during the sixth century. The first monograph on this subject was published by Lu Yu in 780 AD. His recipe was to compress the leaves into bricks, and roast the cake until reddish in colour. Particles of this brick were then placed in a chinaware pot and boiling water poured over them. Onion ginger and orange were added for flavouring if required.

During the early days, the use of tea was partly social and partly medicinal, intended to promote digestion and to stimulate the appetite, with the result it came to be served after every food dish. During the period 960 to 1126, much time was spent in developing the technique of tea manufacture, and once this was achieved, the tea drinking habit became a fashionable pastime in China, and came to be recognised as a social drink. For the Chinese tea has always been more than the sum of its chemical and mineral components, and much more than just a hot beverage. It became a symbol of hospitality and entertainment. The more civilised sectors in China witnessed a complete transformation in their tea drinking habits. .It was always pervaded with an air of leisure, and attended with pomp and glory. It became a part of the rich pattern of life in China.

Tea originated as a beverage for some, food for still others, and had its third use as money. In remote parts of China and later in Mongolia, bank notes or coins were of little use to the Nomadic tribes from the interior. Compressed tea in brick form, on the other hand were used both as an article of consumption and for further bartering. Brick tea unlike currency, tends to enhance its value, the further it was carried from the tea gardens of China. Brick tea was used as the medium of exchange up to recent times in certain parts of China and Tibet.

Returning to China- the concept of tea grew beyond the act of tea making. It embraces all the skills associated with the growing and processing of tea leaves. It had to be performed so as to extract the maximum flavour and aroma and in doing so, cultivating the taste for delightful ceramics and other accessories to make and serve the brew. Poems, songs, and stories were written on tea in ancient times. Most of all, in the days of yore and even today, the finest association to tea is the art of relaxing and savouring the brew, in pleasant surroundings where the atmosphere is tranquil, to shed the stresses and strains of everyday life

Tea drinking involves harmony among the three powers, heaven, earth and man. Heaven provide the sunshine mist and rain needed for the growing of tea, earth provides the soil to nourish the tea plants, and the rocky springs overflowing with pure water, and the man-he adds the skills by which processed tea leaves, water and ceramics are incorporated to create the fabric of a tasteful art. If one is mindful of the glories of tea drinking, a thousand hitherto unnoticed beauties, the Chinese believed would reveal themselves. The music in the hiss and the bubble of the kettle- a spring time freshness in the fragrance of the steam rising from the tea cups.

The most famous of the forty six imperial tea gardens was named Pei-Yuan. The best tea was gathered at the time known as “excited insects”, which is usually during the beginning of March, when the tea leaves are covered with morning dew. The tea pickers would assemble in the early morning preceding dawn, to the sounds of drums and cymbals. Tea plucking girls were specially trained to pick the quality leaves, which were highly priced than quantity.

After picking, the tea leaves are graded into five grades, namely “small bud”, “medium bud” (with a single leaf
on each stalk), “purple bud”(with two leaves on a stalk), “two leaves with Bud”, and “stem tops”. The first
two categories are regarded as tribute tea, and reserved to the royalty, and the rest sold to tea dealers. The
value of the “small bud” was beyond value, the “medium bud” could have fetched anything up to two ounces of
gold, the third category, one ounce of gold and the last “stem tops”, half ounce of gold per cake.

The Opium Wars

It was with the formation of the “United Company of Merchants trading to the East Indies,” more popularly known as the Honourable East India Company, that the city of London became really conscious of the vast potential of the Eastern trade. The Royal Charter granted to this Company in 1600 gave it not only a virtual monopoly, but security and protection, which at most instances were exploited.

Their main preoccupation was the administration of its interests in India, which called for a fairly large financial commitment. They found promising trading opportunities opening out in the East, so they pushed their way to the East Indies and the China Sea. It was in this part of the world that the most wanted commodities in Europe could be found. With the Industrial Revolution, economic activities were thriving in the Western world. This rising standard of living created a longing for extravagance and novelties of all kinds.

The principal homeward cargo was tea. The consumption of tea got a genuine boost after it reached England in the mid seventeen century. England soon became the core for the merchandising of tea, and the biggest supporter of the thriving Chinese tea industry. A new form of trading operations emerged, with England guiding the tea trading activities to the West. British merchants re-exported the product to Europe and America. This one-sided form of trading based in Canton was conducted for over 150 years, with tea being the main item of trade.

This was all well and good, but the greatest difficulty was the form of payment to be followed, because then as now, commerce was at least a two-way affair. If however payment could not be effected directly as a two-way business, it had to be done indirectly as part of a three-way transaction. It was with the creation of this form of business that trading giants such as Jardine Matheson and Company, Dents, Gibbs, Turners, Hollidays, Braines and etc. came into being. They branded themselves as “free traders” and this group was going to play a vital part in the drug trade.

The Companies financial commitment towards India was becoming a major issue, and it was mostly met by the income from tea. As long as there was peace in Europe, it was possible to finance tea and other purchases by the export of bullion. At the end of the eighteen century, war clouds were seen gathering over Europe. The French Revolution had rocked the stability of Europe. Britain was at war with France, and with the Napoleonic blockage it was difficult to acquire and export bullion in sufficient quantities to finance tea imports. Other forms of payment had to be found, if the y had to remain in this profitable business in tea.

China had a choice of purchasing a large verity of products resulting from the Industrial Revolution in England and Europe, but they preferred to maintain their traditional isolation and sense of superiority over alien civilisations. The only other product that could command a satisfactory market, which British eventually discovered was opium. This was freely available in India, under the absolute control of the British East India Company. As in modern times, drug trade was illegal, but it flourished in a climate of smuggling, bribery and corruption.

Many were the hostile remarks roused as a consequence of this illegal trade, and the opium traffic was condemned at all quarters, and Scott remarked :- “provides an example of how the Chinese had perfected the art of self-deception… and how corrupt their complex bureaucracy had become. Every official was in the racket, from the meanest mandarin to the Viceroy himself, and every foreign devil except a very few who had moral scruples about it… the tea being drunk in the West … at Methodist and anti-slavery meetings, in the fine drawing rooms and poor cottages…nearly all of it was in effect brought with opium.”

Indeed, says William Ukers in his book “All About Tea,” the Chinese tea had furnished the means of governing India, or perhaps it would be fairer to say the export of tea and the import of opium for the East India Company originally organised and financed the cultivation, shipment, and distribution of opium to China. As is recognised, it was largely the opium trade that caused the wars between China and Great Britain in 1840 and 1855.

The decline of the Chinese Tea Trade

The closely guarded secrets of China tea culture could not be kept for long. Their tea plants, cultivation methods, and manufacturing techniques were taken to Japan in the late sixth and early seventh centuries by the Buddhist monks. Propagation of tea was however restricted to monasteries and temples. It was a Japanese abbot who in the late twelfth century smuggled a large range of different varieties of tea to Japan, with a manual on its cultivation. This paved the way for large scale cultivation of tea.

In the sixth century the tea drinking habit spread overland from China to Russia, and then in the early seventeenth century to Holland and than to England. The western world remained the biggest market for the Chinese thriving tea industry, and this they held out for over 150years. The opium wars ended the smooth businesslike operations of the tea trade between Britain and China, and this forced England to look for alternate sources of supplies.

Eventually China lost its monopoly over the tea plant when large scale plantations were opened up in British India and Ceylon. Although the British East India Company had propagated tea very successfully with Chinese seeds in India, they found the indigenous tea plant growing wild in Assam more suited for local conditions. These wild tea plants ultimately laid the foundation for the Indian tea industry. Dutch did likewise in their Indonesian colony between 1827 and 1833with hired Chinese labourers. Tea cultivation was undertaken in Ceylon from about 1870, and by the turn of the century she was able to supplement the requirements of the Britishers.

Before the colonial tea project got under way, Chinese tea exports provided 96% of world requirements of tea. From about the end of the eighteen century, they began to lose their commanding position, in the face of challenges from new comers to the industry. They were able to model their plantation systems on more organised methods where they could guarantee product consistency. With the entry of India Japan and Ceylon to the tea export markets in the 1890’s, China’s proportion of world trade declined to just 50%. The loss of the American market from 96% in 1860 to 12% in 1910 was a great blow, and her loss was Japan’s gain. A similar trend was emerged with regards to Chinese exports of tea to Britain. In 1909 China supplied Russia with 70% of her requirements, but this stronghold too was lost to India and Ceylon.

The hay days of Chinese supremacy was during the period 1871 to 1895 where they were able to average over 120 thousand metric tons, but a sharp decline has been recorded thereafter. During the period 1870 and 1895, tea exports made up 43% of China’s total export earnings. This figure declined to 7% in the period 1900 to 1915.

Dutch East India Company -- The First Carriers of Tea to Europe

The western world took a long time to brew and test the tea for its medicinal properties. It was not until the 16th century that teas come to be spoken about, although books had been written on the beneficial effects of tea earlier, based on the favourable comments received from European visitors to the East.

The earliest mention of tea in the literature of Europe dates back to 1559. During the period 1485 to 1557, Venice, due to its geographical position, became the centre of great commercial activity. It became the market place for the conduct of trade between the East and the West. Traders and travellers arriving in Venice were encouraged to narrate stories about the habits and the products of the orient that was still shrouded with mystery.

The first European to taste tea had been the Jesuit priests who went to China and Japan in the sixteenth century to preach Christianity. It was only through the favourable accounts received from the Catholic Missionaries that Europe took notice of this new drink. The first account about tea to reach Europe was from Father Gasper de Cruz in 1560. Italy had the good news from Father Louis Almeida in 1565 and Russia had similar reports in 1567.

They all described the tea plant as a wonder in China and it was commonly accepted as being nourishing. It helped the Chinese and the Japanese live long years without weariness from exertion. It protected the drinker from pituitary troubles, heaviness in the head and ailments of the eye. The first consignment of this precious cargo to reach the Western World landed in Holland in the year 1610 and this is where the modest start was made to popularise tea in that part of the world.

The first fleet of four vessels looking for spices and oriental merchandise set sail from an island called Texel on 12th April 1595 and reached Java in 1596. They were well received in Java and they found the natives willing to trade with them in spices and oriental produce. They returned with valuable cargo in August 1597. They were the first to establish trade connection with the East, which ultimately developed into a thriving business later on. They were the pathfinders, and with them a steady traffic in pursuit of profit evolved, and by 1602, more than sixty Dutch ships had made the round trip voyage to the orient.

Initially, it was the Portuguese and the Dutch that were involved the Eastern trade. The Dutch were the pioneers and during the second half of the seventeenth they sent considerable quantities of cargo to the West. Their English counterpart was only picking odd parcels more for their curiosity value rather than for trade.

The Far East soon became the centre of attraction, and many other fleets set sail, all heading in one direction in pursuit of profits. With many ships operating, arrivals could not be properly timed, with the result markets were glutted accompanied with falling prices. Some of the companies were forced to close down. On 20th March 1602 the surviving companies formed a new corporation at The Hague, and “The Dutch East India Company” came into existence.

The Dutch East India Company commenced operations in 1602 with fourteen ships. It is recorded that the first consignment of tea was transported from Macao in China to Java in 1606, and in four years, these very ships were ordered to carry the first cargo of tea to Europe. It took a further period of time for tea to gain popularity, and from 1637 tea became a regular article of trade. By 1739 tea had reached a position of prime importance, and for the year 885,567 pounds of tea had been imported. From about 1750 black tea had begun to replace green tea, and this helped to displace coffee as a breakfast beverage.

The company reached its zenith in tea imports in 1784 when the figure rose to 3,500,000 pounds. It was during this period that rivalries and hostilities with East India companies of other countries began to surface. They were finally expelled from the mainland of British India, and the island of Ceylon. With the conquest of Holland by Napoleon in 1798, the company was finally dissolved and all powers abrogated.
The Greatest Tea Monopoly

It is often said that the English East India Company owned its birth to pepper, but its amazing success is attributed to tea. It was the single most powerful economical force that the world has ever seen. Founded by a Royal Charter of Queen Elizabeth 1 in 1600, its authority reached out to all continents, and the repercussion of its actions, both great and small, are the very substance of history. The company is said to have built British India, brought into existence Hong Kong and Singapore, give rise to the Boston Tea Party, employed Captain Kidd to confront pillage, held Napoleon captive, and made the fortune of Elihu Yale who founded the famous university with the proceeds.

Anthony Wild in his book of tea, goes to explain further the overpowering authority the company conveyed to the entire world. He says that the stars and the strips was inspired by its flag, its shipyards provided the modal for St Petersburg, its London chapel set the pattern for New England churches, its administration still form the basis of Indian bureaucracy, its corporate structure was the earliest example of a joint stock Company. It introduced tea to Britain and India, woollens to Japan, chintzes to America, spices to West Indies, opium to China, porcelain to Russia, and polo to Persia.

It had its own armies, navies, currencies, and territories. In his final conclusion, he says that it is well to record, that it accomplished a work such as in the whole history of the human race no other Company ever attempted and, as such, is ever likely to attempt in the years to come. On the tea front, it was so powerful so as to hastily change the British people from a nation of coffee drinkers to a nation of tea drinkers.

Tea in the beginning could only have been procured from China. It was a very precious thing says Ukers, which appeared occasionally among the list of gifts to sovereigns, to princesses, and the nobility, while the Dutch were thoughtfully promoting its sale on the Continent and smuggling it to England, the East India Company had been singularly accused of wilful neglect to provide tea in sufficient quantities for the British public.

During the early stages, the British trade with the Indian settlements was in the hands of the Levant Company. It was not in a position individually, to offer any form of rivalry to the founded Companies. The Portuguese and the Dutch had already consolidated themselves, and it was felt that if they did not step in fast, the opportunities would never return. Accordingly, a petition was presented to Queen Elizabeth in 1599 by the directors of the Levant Company. Finally on the last day of 1960 these gentlemen were granted the monopoly of the Indian trade, initially for fifteen years. This concession by itself was valuable, but many other privileges followed.

They were exempted from paying export duties for the first four voyages, and permitted to take out coins of the kingdom. This charter bestowed to the company the exclusive right of trading with the Far East. Any other company found operating outside this charter was liable for heavy penalties.

The first fleet sailed out of England in 1601, under the command of James Lancaster. They by-passed India and headed towards Netherlands India (Java). They were well grasped and received in a very friendly manner. They were able to obtain sufficient cargo, and on their return home they had secured about 90% of their total capital exhausted on their first voyage.

In the spring of 1637, they were able to penetrate further into Dutch territory to reach Canton, the only city in China where foreign trade was permitted. This was the first encounter between the Chinese and the English -- between the age old and the one that was yet to be born. Trade was building, but they were mostly interested in oriental luxuries such as silk, gold and spices. By the second decade of the eighteen century tea was fast catching up in England. From then onwards, they were determined to snatch much of this valuable cargo, and convey it to Europe on British bottoms.

The first delivery of tea to England weighing less than a hundredweight of the best quality was subsequently made, in competition with the Dutch. They were dealing in cheap teas and under a well-organised clandestine operation the bulk of the tea was smuggled into England, and sold at much cheaper prices to those sold by the company. The officers and the men of the ships of the company saw the opportunities in the contraband trade, and were quick to respond.

The British East India Company was able to skilful protect its monopoly for nearly two centuries. No, British contingent was permitted to trade at Canton without implicit authorisation from the company. With the prospects for treading fast developing in these areas, the company could not hold out any longer against private traders from other nationalities, The Portuguese were offering unrelenting pressure from Macao, the Spaniards from Manila, ant the Dutch from Formosa.

By mid eighteen century, the company was fast getting to low water, and were forced to apply for a loan from the government. This was granted, but through a series of acts, refined financial management of the company was urged.

Before long the 30,000 strong tea wholesalers and dealers were driven to revolt against this preferential form of treatment. The chief representative for the tea traders was Richard Twining and their main proposition was to force the government to terminate its exclusive right over trade.

The monopolistic powers held by the company were gradually reduced. In 1813, the British Parliament passed an act giving the authorities the right to inspect the commercial and the administrative activities of the company, and withdrew its monopoly with India.

The monopoly to China however continued for a further period of twenty years, and abolished finally in 1833. There ended the greatest of all the monopolies, after 258 years of conspicuous adventures.

Tea Clippers of the 19th Century

The story of tea in the western world is a story of ships and sailors. The fantasy of the Tea Clippers dates back to the early part of the 19th century, when wind would glimmer out their canvas sails across the China seas. Those sailing ships carried tea from Canton to London or Boston, and took two years and eight months to cover the distance.

The termination of the East India Company’s tea monopoly in 1833, followed by the opening of the seas to foreign ships in 1849, ushered in a new era of free trade and rivalry. The tea merchants in London began to appeal for more speedy transportation for each new season tea. More modern ships carrying passengers, mail and cargo appeared on the high seas, and competition increased. The shipbuilders in New York and New England were tormented with orders for fast ships.

A clipper is a large ship designed to go fast. The word is derived from the slang “clip” that mean fast. The Americans were the first to build large ships of 500 to 1000 tons and more with the lines of the small faster crafts. These vessels came to be called the clippers. Previously, speed at sea was considered dangerous, but with the proper placing of the foremast, they were able to find a happy medium between speed and safety. It took a further forty years before they were able to perfect to introduce speed to the cumbersome cargo carrying ships.

By the latter part of the 19th century, the theatre of operations had shifted from the drawing boards to the shipbuilding yard. They had by then reached the peak of scientific growth, and at last a vessel was developed which could do what had seemed impossible before.

It was now fast enough to sail from China to America or England and avoid the necessity of putting in anywhere en-rout for stores or water. They were able to maintain their superiority over steamers in both speed and cheapness, until the Suez Canal was opened. They were proved far superior to the high capacity ships used by the East India Company, and with America enthusiastically established in shipbuilding trade, the tea Clipper “Lightning” became the fastest of them all, capable of covering 436 miles in 24 hours.

The Americans were the first on the scene, and engaged a regular fleet of clippers and captured a large proportion of the Chinese trade. England had no choice but to join in. To consolidate the fast deteriorating British trade in China, Jardine Matheson & Company for a start launched the 506 ton “Stornoway” in 1850. This was the first clipper-rigged ship to be built in England, and many followed thereafter, and the British “Challenger” became the first British vessel of any nationality to load tea in Hankow, then regarded the great inland port of China.

On the American side, the fleet of sixteen ships owned by A. A. Low & Brothers, made history on several occasions. The “Houqua," belonging to the fleet made her first voyage to Hong Kong in eighty-four days, and returned to New York in ninety days. In 1850 she did the Shanghai-New York run in eighty-eight days, but the sad end to her sailing carrier came in 1865, when she sank in a typhoon off the cost of China.

Then there was “Samuel Russell," well known by the owners' agents in China for her speed. They would purchase their requirements of new season teas late, once prices have stabilised, and rush them to New York ahead of others, and obtain the best possible value.

The romances of the tea clippers stretch out beyond just their accomplishments at sea. The sensation, competitiveness, and the excitement among those watching the arrival of these ships from land has been rivalled only by the Derby. Fortunes were made or lost at the home ports, whether it be in England or America, and the prospects of making a handsome profit all depended on the ability of the vessel to make the port first.

The best sailing masters, the finest sailors, and the fastest ships were engaged in the tea fleet, all thriving to get to the home-port first. The racing tea clippers must have been the topic of conversation at all commercial and social gatherings.

With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, and with the coming of the new steamers the profile of the silver sails against the shining sky began to fade away. The new steamers of the Glen Line using the new route could do the passage in a matter of 44 days, as against the 100 days or more by the faster clippers.

Only one of the once famous tea clippers remains to be seen today. The Cutty Sark, the most modern of them all, with all the scientific knowledge on the subject brought into reality in its construction, lies in the dry docks at Greenwich.

A great Clipper unfortunately born too late, in the year the Suez Canal was opened. It was built at Dumbarton on the Clyde in 1869, at a cost of pound sterling 16,150. Her contribution towards the tea trade was limited to only eight voyages as a tea ship.

She came on the scene rather late in the clipper era, but during this short period, the Cutty Sark was able to command the top rates, as it came to be known as the safest sailing ship at that time.

The Cutty Sark sailed in the China tea trade from 1870 to 1877, then she carried general cargo until 1883, after which she was put to the Australian wool trade. She had an enormous sail area of 32,000 square feet and her fastest passage from Shanghai to England was 107 days, on a voyage undertaken in 1871 with a full load of tea.

Today, the shipping of tea has none of the romances of former years. The chests are stuffed into containers, which sit on the deck of the container ships until they are unloaded at the point of discharge. The famous tea storehouses that used to line the ports and the river banks are replaced by huge warehouses sited at strategic points for convenient transportation.

The Colonial Tea Enterprise

The British could boast of having enjoyed centuries of familiarity with the tealeaf, but they were for long, in considerable ignorance over the plant from which the tea was made. They were used to Chinese greens and Chinese blacks, but they did not realise that there was only one species of the tea plant “Camellia Sinensis.” It took still a longer time for them to perceive that a very distinctive variety of the species was growing wild in the Indian territories.

It was the adverse balance of trade with China, which revolved round tea that prompted them to start on their own tea industry. Although a star was made as early as 1764 to obtain planting material from China, their ambition to grow their own tea was obstructed by lethargy. It was the termination of the East India Company’s monopoly of the Chinese trade that the Indian Government with all assistance from Britain took up the challenge and initiated competition in the planting of tea.

With the termination of the monopoly held by the East India Company in 1833, the task of providing tea to the British public devolved on the local merchants. The only tea available to them was the more expensive Chinese. With restricted imports coupled with high taxes, it became prohibitive to a large proportion of the population to indulge in the tea drinking habit.

The government at that stage, was compelled to encourage free competition in order to bring tea prices within reach of the masses The outcome was overwhelming, and, within ten years of the termination of the contract, consumption rose to a total of 53,000,000 pounds, and by 1929, this figure had reached 560,000,000 pounds, which is a more than a 1000% increase.

Tea Planting in British India

The rapidity at which the consumption grew in Britain would have driven any person, with natural wisdom, to study the economic importance of growing tea in India or anywhere in the British colonies. The subject of tea had been freely discussed in India way back in the mid seventeen centuries though no attempts had been made to cultivate it. They were ignorant of the fact that they were in possession of the very same plant they were trying to foster, a native jat best suited to its requirements.

During the initial stages, it was Chinese tea all the way—their seeds, their plants, and their workman. Many rewards were offered to persons who would prepare the greatest quantity of the best Chinese tea in any of the British colonies. All these offers were made for the expansion of tea cultivation based on Chinese tea culture, not knowing the fact that hidden in the wild hills of Assam the indigenous tea plant was all the time flourishing. The ready availability of Chinese planting material however, did not stop the search for more suitable indigenous varieties, and this task was pursued with vigour. Before long “tea tracts” large enough to justify exploitation was discovered in Assam. This discovery changed apathy into enthusiasm, and before long, a complete transformation was taking place in the Himalayas and in the Assam and Nilgiri hills.

The discovery of the indigenous tea plant, is attributed to Major Robert Bruce who in 1823 discovered it growing wild in the wild hills of Assam. Although, at the initial stages, Chinese seeds were used for its propagation with varying fortunes, it was the native Indian tea plant discovered by Bruce that finally established the tea industry with complete success.

During this time, Assam was under Burmese occupation, and the war broke out with the Burmese in 1824, and most unfortunately Bruce died the same year before he could witness his prediction came true. It was left to his brother C. A. Bruce to continue with the search for the indigenous Assam tea plant fit for large scale propagation. Assam being such a vast place, it was no easy task to identify the ideal type to be used as planting material for the Indian tea industry. Experimental plots were raised in all suitable areas with Chinese plants and seeds growing side by side with the indigenous plants.

Numerous tea tracks were discovered inside forests. Some of these areas were cleared and the leaf gathered from these bushes was manufactured with the help of Chinese workers. The first experimental samples of made tea from the indigenous plants were forwarded to Calcutta in 1836 for their comments. The samples received favourable remarks. Following this encouraging comments, an invoice of eight chests of Assam tea was forwarded to London in 1839. These teas came under the hammer in London on 10th January 1839. This was a moment of significant importance. It not only established the worth of the Assam tea, but also the future course of tea cultivation throughout the world.

Assam Tea Company

The initial work associated with the opening up of the plantations was carried out by the respective governments, and having set the project on track, the private sector was invited to join in. For this purpose the Assam Company was formed. The formation of the company that flourishes even today, was the outcome of a meeting held at 6, Great Winchester Street, in the city of London.

Whilst the various experiments were being carried out, upper Assam, the natural home of the tea plant was still foreign territory. It was only in 1839 that the native ruler was deposed and placed in the name of the British Crown. This move made private enterprise possible and safe. The government, after having felt that the path for progress had been laid by them, left the balance for the private sector.

The capitalist merchants in Calcutta acted fast, and with government approval set up the Bengal Tea Association to harness the necessary funds for the project. In February 1839, a similar joint stock company was formed in London for a similar purpose, namely to undertake the cultivation of newly discovered tea lands in Assam.

These two companies were amalgamated on 30th May 1839. By now the intention of the government had become clear. They were determined to leave the Indian tea project in the hands of the private sector. In March 1840, two-thirds of its experimental gardens in Assam were given over to the company free for the first ten years.

Their first anxious moments dawned with a shortage of labour. Attempts were made to import labour from China Calcutta and Singapore, but they were unaccustomed with the work associated with tea. Further the Chinese were a quarrelsome lot, and the Calcutta Police had it tough, to get rid of them from the plantations. They were ultimately deported to the isle of France.

Assam was still in a very primitive state when plantations began, with the result the mortality rate was very high among both the Europeans and the native labourers. Foreign doctors died on their tracks, and it was obvious that nature was resenting at every turn, the intrusion of the white man’s enterprise.

Despite all these hindrances, plantations were opened up, though at a slower pace, and in 1841, about 2638 acres had been snatched from the jungles and cultivated with tea. In the following year, 10, 200 pounds of tea had been manufactured. By then, over pounds sterling 65,000 had been invested in the tea project by British investors. These events however did not demoralise the financiers, as they were looking forward to a production increase of 40,000 pounds by the following, increasing to 320,000 pounds in 1845.

Optimistic forecasts had obviously been given to keep the investors happy. In 1841, production was only 29,267 pounds with a capital outlay of pounds sterling 160,000. A state of despair began to seize the inverters, and there were wild rumours in the air that the tea project was heading for rough times.

The Assam management was overhauled in 1843 with the dismissal of the two senior managers, as the London directors felt that they had been deceived. Strictest of financial controls followed, and with expenses curtailed, they were able to turn the project round, with increased yields. They declared a dividend of ten shillings per share in January 1846 though no profits had been made earlier. The company was converted into a Limited Liability Company in 1845. This did not in any way halt the bottom-ward slide, and the London Directors were forced to close down some of the plantations that were found uneconomical They confessed that there were no hopes of success. The 20 pound sterling shares were being hawked for half a crown, despite the East India government telling to the world that the tea industry in India was an established success.

With heavy hearts and light purses, they decided to carry on for a further year. There had been extravagant spending at every turn. The finances of the company had been exhausted. They were pounds sterling 7000 in debt in London and a further Rs 40,000 in Calcutta. All did not despair. Those who decided to stay on, raised funds on their own individual credit, and with a firm commitment, they went on to salvage the situation, and make one more effort to retrieve the Assam Company from a certain collapse.

The year was 1847. This colossal failure was changed into a profitable industry, and the success of this venture rests with three great men Mr. Henry Burkinyoung in Calcutta, Mr. Stephen Mornay and later Mr. George Williamson in Assam. Many were the tributes paid to these gentlemen who within five years converted a bankrupt concern into one which was paying its own way. Dr Mann did not hesitate to say “One cannot exaggerate the debt which the tea industry owes to them. Their successors improved their results, but they, it was who made a tea industry appear possible in North East India.”

Their initial problem was the incorrect stock selection, and it took plenty of time and money before the native Indian jat succeeded to its birth-right. In 1852 the first earned dividend of 21/2 % was paid. With the success of the Assam Company, public interests were enlivened, and by 1859, over fifty private companies were engaged in tea cultivation, not only in Assam, but in all other districts where tea cultivation was possible.

As with all good things, tea cultivation took an unlucky corner and plunged into a speculative orgy. Properties were grossly overvalued, new gardens were opened with reckless enthusiasm, prudence and proper planning were tossed aside, and the mad scramble was on to speculate on land to make a quick fortune. In this wild rush to acquire tea lands, every man thought that to own a few tea bushes was to realise wealth.

This orgy reached its climax in 1865, when the bubble burst. The small tea companies distressed and disappear. The urge to buy tea lands ceased, and all were rushing not to sell not at premiums, but at discounted prices. Many became bankrupt because of tea. Many others found that they had borrowed far in excess of what they could repay. Tea soon became a stench in the nostrils of the investing public. The situation got out of hand, and the government was forced to intervene.

A commission was appointed to study the state of the industry, but all what they had to say was that the tea industry was still a sound proposition, but the undesirables in the industry had to be weeded out. Confidence soon returned, and by 1870 a widespread financial disaster had been averted, and the industry was back on track and entered its new era of scientific cultivation and of good profits.